Chapter 5: Buddhism & Jainism

POPULAR RELIGIOUS REFORMS

This period (B.C. 600 to B.C. 200) is important not only for political unity of the country but also for cultural unity. Ancient India saw the rise of two very important religions, Jainism and Buddhism which left a lasting influence on Indian life and culture. Vedic religion was  earlier also known as Brahmanism because the Brahmins played a major role in it. Later it came to be called Hinduism. The Brahmins had developed a vested interest demanding large charities at the end of the scarifies. As a result, the sacrifices became very costly. Moreover, the Brahmins considered themselves superior to the other varnas and became arrogant. This led to the unpopularity of Brahminism and a need for reforms was felt.

Besides, there were other factors like the reaction of the Kshatriyas to the Brahmin claim for supremacy and the Vaisya’s demand for an improved social position. The Vedic religion had become very complex and ritualistic. The reforms led by the Kshatriyas and aided by the poorer masses who could not afford the high cost of sacrifices, resulted in the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism around sixth century BC. These new religions that is Jainism and Buddhism also influenced the religious beliefs and several practices of Hinduism.

The other movement was led by Gautama Buddha (563 – 483 BC), a younger contemporary of Mahavira. He taught the Four Noble Truths. His path was the middle path. He believed that there is sorrow in this world and that desire is the cause of that sorrow and it can be conquered by following the Eight Fold Path (ashtangika marga). The eightfold path comprises:

1. Right understanding,
2. Right thought,
3. Right speech,
4. Right action,
5. Right livelihood,
6. Right effort,
7. Right mindfulness
8. Right concentration.

Basically both these movements were against the orthodax and ritualistic Brahamanical religion. Both the reformers emphasised a good moral life and the importance of ethics.

Both of them founded an order of monks, established monasteries called

• sthanakas in Jainism and
• viharas in Buddhism.

Later, Buddhism was also split into two divisions- the Hinayana and the Mahayana to which a third called Vajrayana was added subsequently. Buddhism spread to a very large part of the world- Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, Japan, Thailand, Korea, Mongolia and Afghanistan. Even today a substantial population of these countries is Buddhist.

Hinduism underwent many changes in history. It gave rise to several religious sects within itself with varying beliefs and practices. Like Buddhism, some sects of Hinduism also spread outside India, particularly in the countries of South East Asia. Later Hindu tradition even accepted the Buddha as one of the incarnations (avatara) of Vishnu.

BUDDHIST AND JAIN LITERATURE IN PALI, PRAKRIT AND SANSKRIT

1. The religious books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical persons or incidents. The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and South Bihar.
2. The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-canonical.
3. The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets – Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
   1. Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulations of daily life.
   2. Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma
   3. Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics. It includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics, psychology, theories of knowledge and mataphysical problems.
4. The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas are the most interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha. It was believed that before he was finally born as Gautama, the Buddha practising Dharma passed through more than 550 births, in many cases even in the form of animals. Each birth story is called a Jataka. The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. They also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.
5. The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras. Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth century AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD). Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar. These works contain many passages which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.

JAIN PHILOSOPHY

1. Like the Charvakas, the Jains too do not believe in the Vedas, but they admit the existence of a soul.
2. They also agree with the orthodox tradition that suffering (pain) can be stopped by controlling the mind and by seeking right knowledge and perception and by observing the right conduct.
3. The Jaina philosophy was first propounded by the tirthankar Rishabha Deva.
4. The names of Ajit Nath and Aristanemi are also mentioned with Rishabha Deva.
5. There were twenty-four tirthankaras who actually established the Jaina darshan.
6. The first tirthankar realised that the source of Jaina philosophy was Adinath.
7. The twenty- fourth and the last tirthankar was named Vardhaman Mahavira who gave great impetus to Jainism. Mahavira was born in 599 BC. He left worldly life at the age of thirty and led a very hard life to gain true knowledge. After he attained Truth, he was called Mahavira. He strongly believed in the importance of celibacy or brahamcharya.

Jain Theory of Reality: Seven Kinds of Fundamental Elements

1. The Jainas believe that the natural and supernatural things of the universe can be traced back to seven fundamental elements. They are jiva, ajivaa, astikaya, bandha, samvara, nirjana, and moksa.
2. Substances like body which exist and envelope (like a cover) are astïkaya.
3. Anastikayas like ‘time’ have no body at all. The substance is the basis of attributes (qualities). The attributes that we find in a substance are known as dharmas. The Jainas believe that things or substance have attributes. These attributes also change with the change of kala (time). From their point of view, the attributes of a substance are essential, and eternal or unchangeable. Without essential attributes, a thing cannot exist. So they are always present in everything. For example, consciousness (chetana) is the essence of the soul; desire, happiness and sorrow are its changeable attributes.
4. The Jains lay great emphasis on severe penance and asceticism.
5. Lord Mahavira asked them to take five vows –
   1. not to tell lies;
   2. not to injure life;
   3. not to own property;
   4. not to steal; and
   5. to maintain chastity (celibacy) added by Mahavira
6. He also asked the Jains to follow the three-fold path of

1. Right belief,
2. Right Conduct
3. Right Knowledge.

Later, the Jains were split into two sects the Shvetambaras (white clothed ones) and the Digambaras (the naked ones). Most of followers of Jainism belong to the trading community.

PHILOSOPHY OF THE BUDDHA

1. Gautama Buddha, who founded the Buddhist philosophy, was born in 563 BC at Lumbini, a village near Kapilavastu in the foothills of Nepal. His childhood name was Siddhartha. His mother, Mayadevi, died when he was hardly a few days old. He was married to Yashodhara, a beautiful princess, at the age of sixteen. After a year of the marriage, he had a son, whom they named Rahul. But at the age of twenty-nine, Gautama Buddha renounced family life to find a solution to the world’s continuous sorrow of death, sickness, poverty, etc. He went to the forests and meditated there for six years. Thereafter, he went to Bodh Gaya (in Bihar) and meditated under a pipal tree. It was at this place that he attained enlightenment and came to be known as the Buddha. He then travelled a lot to spread his message and helped people find the path of liberation or freedom. He died at the age of eighty.
2. Gautama’s three main disciples known as Upali, Ananda and Mahakashyap remembered his teachings and passed them on to his followers. It is believed that soon after the Buddha’s death a council was called at Rajagriha where Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka (rules of the order) and Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka (Buddha’s sermons or doctrines and ethics). Sometime later the Abhidhamma Pitaka consisting of the Buddhist philosophy came into existence.

Main Characteristics

1. Buddha presented simple principles of life and practical ethics that people could follow easily.
2. He considered the world as full of misery. Man’s duty is to seek liberation from this painful world.
3. He strongly criticised blind faith in the traditional scriptures like the Vedas. Buddha’s teachings are very practical and suggest how to attain peace of mind and ultimate liberation from this material world.
4. Realization of Four Noble Truths. The knowledge realized by Buddha is reflected in the following four noble truths:

1. There is suffering in human life: When Buddha saw human beings suffering from sickness, pain and death, he concluded that there was definitely suffering in human life. There is pain with birth. Separation from the pleasant is also painful. All the passions that remain unfulfilled are painful. Pain also comes when objects of sensuous pleasure are lost. Thus, life is all pain.
2. There is cause of suffering: The second Noble Truth is related to the cause of suffering. It is desire that motivates the cycle of birth and death. Therefore, desire is the fundamental cause of suffering.
3. There is cessation of suffering: The third Noble Truth tells that when passion, desire and love of life are totally destroyed, pain stops. This Truth leads to the end of sorrow, which causes pain in human life. It involves destruction of ego (aham or ahamkara), attachment, jealousy, doubt and sorrow. That state of mind is the state of freedom from desire, pain and any kind of attachment. It is the state of complete peace, leading to nirvana.
4. Path of Liberation: The fourth Noble Truth leads to a way that takes to liberation. Thus, initially starting with pessimism, the Buddhist philosophy leads to optimism. Although there is a constant suffering in human life, it can be ended finally. Buddha suggests that the way or the path leading to liberation is eight-fold, through which one can attain nirvana.

Eight-fold Path to Liberation (Nirvana)

1. Right Vision. One can attain right vision by removing ignorance. Ignorance creates a wrong idea of the relationship between the world and the self. It is on account of wrong understanding of man that he takes the non-permanent world as permanent. Thus, the right view of the world and its objects is the right vision.
2. Right Resolve. It is the strong will-power to destroy thoughts and desires that harm others. It includes sacrifice, sympathy and kindness towards others.
3. Right Speech. Man should control his speech by right resolve. It means to avoid false or unpleasant words by criticizing others.
4. Right Conduct. It is to avoid activities which harm life. It means to be away from theft, excessive eating, the use of artificial means of beauty, jewellery, comfortable beds, gold etc.
5. Right Means of Livelihood. Right livelihood means to earn one’s bread and butter by right means. It is never right to earn money by unfair means like fraud, bribery, theft, etc.
6. Right Effort. It is also necessary to avoid bad feelings and bad impressions. It includes self-control, stopping or negation of sensuality and bad thoughts, and awakening of good thoughts.
7. Right Mindfulness. It means to keep one’s body, heart and mind in their real form. Bad thoughts occupy the mind when their form is forgotten. When actions take place according to the bad thoughts, one has to experience pain.
8. Right Concentration. If a person pursues the above seven Rights, he will be able to concentrate properly and rightly. One can attain nirvana by right concentration (meditation).

Jainism

Spread

1. To spread his teaching, Mahavira organized an order of followers which included both men and women.
2. It spread into Karnataka via CGM and the great Magadhan famine which lasted 12 years.
3. Jainism spread to Odisha in 4 cent BC and got the patronage of King Kharvela in 1cent BC.
4. InTN,it spread in 2-1 cent BC and later it penetrated Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
5. In the early medieval age,it was finished from South India under attack from the bhakti saints.

Impact

Languages

1. They used Prakrit language out of which many regional languages grew specially Shauraseni from which modern Marathi came up.
2. Jainas composed earliest works in Apbhramsha and prepared its grammar.
3. They also contributed to the growth of Kannada

Sculpture

• Initially they, like Buddhism, didn’t worship idols. But later on they too began to construct idols and thus contributed to sculpture.

Architecture

• Jaina caves at Udaigiri and Khandgiri were cut in Puri, Odisha. These were simple caves reflecting the asceticism of Jina order. But the entrances were carved.

   Social

• It was a first serious challenge to the brahmanical religion and evils of varna system.

Buddhism

Causes of Spread (apart from the common ones with Jainism)

1. Buddhism found ready audience in non-Vedic lands and specially Magadha which was looked down upon in the brahmanical religion.
2.  It used Pali+ the personality of Buddha+ clear distinction from brahmanical religion.
3. Buddhist sangha was very organized and got state patronage.
4. It was pragmatic and protected the interests of its powerful target groups. Eg. Debtors and slaves cannot enter sangha to protect the interests of money lenders & slave owners. It respected political authority.

Buddhism and Gana Sanghas

•  It is known that Buddhism was close to Gana Sangha in its philosophy of kingship (social contract), customs etc. In terms of organization as well it was close to the gana sangha model.
• Regular fortnightly meetings were held, the views of monks were heard and decisions arrived at in accordance with the rules of the sangha. This is in sharp contrast with the monarchical rule.
• Periodic councils were held –
  • first @ Rajgriha,
  • second @ Vaishali 
  • 3rd @ Patliputra
  • 4th was held by Kanishka @ Kashmir.

Similarities between Buddhism and Brahmanical Religion

1. Both didn’t advocate production and labor rather lived on alms.
2. Both emphasized carrying out family obligations, protecting private property and respecting the political  authority.
3. Both supported social order based on classes – for Buddhists, it was based on action and for Brahmans, it was based on birth.
4. Inreality, the status of shudras didn’t change materially even in Buddhism. Although they were admitted into sangha, their position continued to be low. We hear of Buddha going into a brahmana assembly, a kshatriya assembly, a vaishya assembly but not a shudra assembly.

Buddhism as a Revolution Against the Class Based Order

1. Buddhism was more socially inclusive than brahmanical, but it didn’t really change much at the ground. Buddhist texts and order are not free from bias.
2. Buddha and his monks broke the tradition of restrictions on taking food. They could take food from anybody.
3. Buddhism also rejects superiority of brahmans and places kshatriyas on top. But, Buddhist texts were biased against the lower classes.
4. Soldiers had to seek king’s permission, slaves their master’s permission and debtors had to pay off their debts before joining sangha.
5. Varna and jati were supposed to be immaterial in attaining moksha but buddhist sangha had clear dominance of upper classes like brahmans, kshatriyas and gahapatis.
6. It uses the word brahmana for someone who has led an exemplary life. Brahmans joining the sangha were considered to be a great asset and mentioned in literature.
   

Dhamma

1. Asoka clearly made a distinction between his personal belief in Buddhism and obligations as a king to ensure that all religions are respected. Thus we find that his inscriptions are of 2 kinds. The smaller group is addressed to the sangha as a lay upasaka king. Here he speaks of his belief in Buddhism, relationship with sangha and even shows a hint of intolerance when he proclaims that the dissident monks and nuns should be expelled from the sangha. In his larger set of inscriptions he is seen as a king. These describe his dhamma and show amazing level of tolerance.
2. Some historians have interpreted dhamma as Buddhism arguing Asoka wanted to spread Buddhism among all his subjects. But dhamma was not Buddhism. The description of dhamma in the edicts clearly shows that it was a broader set of ethics intended to explore ways of governance and to reduce social conflicts. Asokan empire consisted not of a monolithic society but a multitude of societies. There were Hellenistic society in NW with division between slaves and masters, there was the varna based society in the plains, there was the clan based society in the forests. Dhamma was an attempt to increase tolerance and to bring harmony. There were different religions, different practices. Dhamma was merely a set of unifying principles.
3. Dhamma principles were set such that they could be embraced by any group (much like Sulh-i-Kul). It was not defined in terms of rigid rules but just broad principles and the implementation was left vague so that it could be moulded by each group according to their own needs while still satisfying the overarching principle.
   

Universities

Nalanda University

1. Sources: We get a comprehensive account of Nalanda university from Huen Tsang which also gives invaluable information about the location of other buddhist shrines in India. I – Tsing studied at Nalanda and left an account of his travels including his stay @ Nalanda.
2. Patrons: It appears that Kumargupta built the first monastery at Nalanda. Its site was not too far nor too close to the city. Hence it was selected as an ideal centre for the pursuit of Buddhist studies by monks. Subsequent later Gupta kings made additions and expansions to the buildings. Even Harsha built the a monastery here and surrounded the university buildings with a high wall.
3. Scale: In the 10th century, there were over 10,000 resident students, 1500 teachers and 1500 workers here. They came from all parts of India and foreign lands (like Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, Sumatra, Java and Sri Lanka). Its chancellorship was reserved for India’s foremost buddhist scholar.
4. Curriculum: Admission to Nalanda was by oral examination. This was done by a professor at the entrance hall. He was called Dvara Pandita. Proficiency in Sanskrit was necessary, as it was the medium of instruction. All Chinese monks going to India for higher studies in Buddhism had to go to Java and brush up their Sanskrit. The standards required were high. Casts, creed and nationality were no barriers in keeping with the Buddhist spirit. The study of Mahayana was compulsory for Buddhists. One could also study the doctrines of 18 other Buddhist sects. One could also study secular subjects like science, medicine, astrology, fine-arts, literature etc. The six systems of Hindu philosophy were also taught. The observatory of the university was situated in a very tall building. Lectures, debates and discussions were part of the educational curriculum. There were three large libraries.
5. Impact: A vast amount of what came to comprise Tibetan Buddhism, both its Mahayana and Vajrayan traditions, stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nalanda teachers and traditions. Other forms of Buddhism, such as the Mahayana Buddhism followed in Vietnam, China, Korea and Japan, flourished within the walls of the ancient university. A number of scholars have associated some Mahayana texts of SE and east Asia with the Buddhist tradition at Nālandā.

Vikramshila

1. Sources: Vikramshila is known to us mainly through Tibetan sources, especially the writings of Tāranātha, the Tibetan monk historian of 16th-17th Century AD.
2. Patrons: It is situated in Antichak, Bhagalpur. It was said to be a sister institution of Nalanda and was said to have been founded under the patronage of king Dharmpala. Under the Pala kings it rose and rivaled Nalanda and bade well to outshine it.
3. Scale and organization: There were six entrances to this building and near each entrance was a monastery for resident monks about 150 teachers were accommodated in each monastery. It was managed by a staff of Professors. Adhyaksha > Dvara pandit > Maha Pandit > Pandit > Acharya > monks.
4. Curriculum: There were six Dvara Pandits. Here too high standards were maintained. The curriculum of studies was similar to that of Nalanda. Here preference was given to the Tantric form of Buddhism.
5. Influence: Sri Gnana was the most famous scholar of Vikramshila. His fame spread far and wide as the propagator of Buddhism in Tibet. Tibetans hold his name in the highest veneration. When he was here, he was invited to teach and propagate Buddhism in Tibet. He postponed it for some time till he completed his work here and then undertook the task.
   

Vallabhi

1. Sources: Huen Tsang and I-Tsing are our sources.
2. Patrons: The Maitraka kings who ruled Western India constructed a monastery at Vallabhi (their capital).
3. Scale and organization: There were about 100 monasteries with about 6,000 Buddhist monks. I-Tsing records that foreign students were found at Vallabhi. They come from many lands far and near. There was a large library.
4. Curriculum: While Nalanda was the centre for Mahayana Buddhism, Vallabhi achieved fame as the centre for Hinayana Buddhism. Most of the monks belong to the Sammitiya sect and precedence was given to Sammitiya doctrines at this university. The course of studies included comparative religion. The six systems of Hindu philosophy and various other schools of Buddhism, Politics, Law, Agriculture, Economics also formed a part of the curriculum.
   

Mahayana

Nature & Character of the Split

1. The emergence of Mahayana didn’t lead to a sudden split in the sangha.
2. It didn’t emerge out of a difference in the devotional practices of the common followers.
3. It emerged out of a difference in ideas and practices of a group of monks. These differences didn’t force the monks of Mahayana to live separately from the Hinayana monks immediately given the centrality of sangha rules which governed the life in monasteries. This is confirmed by the Chinese travelers who saw both monks living together.

Differences with Hinayana

1. The changes can be traced over a period of time. With the increase in the number of followers in the lay community (upasaks) the monks may have been called upon to perform life cycle rituals linked to birth, death, marriage etc. This may have introduced a larger number of rituals than originally introduced and a process of gradual change was set into motion. Places of worship like small stupas (derived from ancestor worship in chalcolithic / megalithic cultures) gave way to more elaborate procedures.
2. Hinayana believes in arhat philosophy i.e. follow Buddha’s path to attain nibbana or become an arhat. Mahayana says follow Buddha’s path to attain buddhahood (great wisdom), but don’t attain nibbana, rather become a bodhisattva and help others in attaining nibbana.
3. Mahayana worshipped Buddha’s and bodhisattvas’ images while Hinayana didn’t. Earlier Buddhism held veneration of stupas and relics meritorious but didn’t consider it essential. Mahayana laid great emphasis on devotion to Buddha and bodhisattvas mainly in the form of image worship.
4. Hinayana believed Buddha attained nibbana and was freed from the cycle of samsara. Mahayana on the other hand proclaimed that he didn’t free himself from the cycle of samsara but remained between nibbana and samsara.
5. Hinayana believed there was only one Buddha and next one would come only when the teachings of the previous ones would die out. Mahayana instead propagated theory of multiple buddhas and bodhisattvas.
6. Mahayana saw progressive decline of women in the monastic order. In fact, it was widely held that women can’t attain nibbana. They had to be reborn as males or had to undergo sex change.
7. While Hinayana flourished in SL, Myanmar and ASEAN, Mahayana flourished in central Asia, Tibet, China and Japan.
   

Post Mauryan Age

1. Monasteries got wealthy and monks could have a comfortable life now inside the monastery. Thus buddhism began to draw away from the people which contributed in the ultimate decline.
2. They also encouraged the donations to sangha and monasteries as they proclaimed that merit can also be transferred from one person to another by the act of donation.
   

Factors Responsible for the Rise

1. The growth of secondary activities and growing prosperity: The Buddhist sangha and monasteries could no longer afford to lose the donations from the growing body of artisans and merchants because if they did so, they would lose out to other religion. Orthodox Buddhism didn’t allow it.
2. The great influx of foreigners: These foreigners didn’t have a strong prior culture and hence were fertile targets for conversion. They were also the new rulers, hence in order to grow, Buddhism had to modify itself to accept them and their practices like eating non-vegetarian food.
3. Under the influence of prosperity and the need to convert, elaborate images of Buddha were made and worshipped which inspired awe and the concept was easier to understand.
4. The rise of the Mahayana is a reflection of the growing popularity of the bhakti sentiment in the age.
5. Devotion to the god was getting popular at the cost of quest for attainment of true knowledge. Mahayana practices clearly adopted bhakti principles. By worshipping Buddha and looking upon him as a benevolent god, the bhaktas could hope for his grace and attainment of salvation.
   

Impact of Rise of Mahayana

Economic Impact

1. Mahayana was more pragmatic religion and was more suited to the needs of the age. It allowed for acceptance of grants in form of gold and silver.
2. Many monasteries / universities were setup which became great consumer of items and thousands of pupils and monks resided there. So settlements developed around them to supply.
3. They also became tourist centers hence promoted urbanization.
   

Cultural Impact

1. It changed the way commons worshipped. Earlier relics of Buddha, his symbols were worshipped. Now his images were built and worshipped.
2. It aided in the growth of Bhakti.
3. There was great amount of cultural exchange with other religions.
4. Led to development of sculpture. Initially Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati schools, relief sculpture, later images of Tara.
5. Led to development of Sanskrit literature.
6. In the early-medieval period, it led to the ascendancy of Buddhist tantricism. Buddha and his consort Tara were important objects in the Tantric school.