Chapter 11: Sufi & Bhakti

POLITICAL BACKGROUND of Medeival India

1. The rulers of Delhi, who ruled from 1206-90, were Mamluk Turks. They were followed by the Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis, who ruled northern India from Delhi till 1526.
2. All these rulers were called Sultans. A Sultan was supposed to rule over a territory on behalf of the Khalifa or Caliph, who was considered to be the spiritual and temporal head of the Muslims. Both the names of the Khalifa and the Sultan used to be read in the khutba, (Friday prayers) by the local Imams.
3. In 1526 the Delhi Sultans were replaced by the Mughals, who initially ruled from Agra and later from Delhi till 1707. Thereafter, the Mughal rule continued only nominally till 1857 when the dynasty ended. The Mughals did not ask for any investiture but continued to send presents to the Khalifas. They also got the khutba read in their own names.
4. However, Sher Shah, a local Afghan ruler, challenged the Mughal ruler, Humayun and kept him away from the throne of Delhi for about fifteen years (1540-55). Sher Shah’s reign stands out for many outstanding achievements. Among these was the construction of several roads, the most important being Sarak-i-Azam or Grand Trunk Road extending from Sonargaon (now in Bangladesh) to Attock (now in Pakistan) and run through Delhi and Agra a distance of 1500 kms. The other roads were from Agra to Burhanpur, Agra to Marwar and from Lahore to Multan. He struck beautiful coins in gold, silver and copper which were imitated by the Mughal Kings.
5. Mughal emperor Akbar who ruled from 1556-1605 was a great ruler in the history of India. He made a sincere effort to foster harmony among his subjects by discouraging racial, religious and cultural biases. He tried to develop friendly relations with the Hindus. To fulfil his imperialist ambitions he entered into matrimonial alliances with the Rajput rulers. His greatest contribution was the political unification of the country and the establishment of an all powerful central government with a uniform system of administration. Akbar was a great patron of art, architecture and learning. As a secular minded monarch he also started a faith called Din-i-Illahi which encompassed ideas from various religions. On every Thursday, scholars from different religions came to debate on religious issues raised by the emperor. This was done at the Ibadat Khana in Fateh Pur Sikri at Agra. Though illiterate Akbar patronised scholars and learned men. In his court there were nine such Navratna Mulla Do Pyaza, Hakin Humam, Abdur Rahim Khan e Khanan, Abul Tayal, Tansen, Raja Todar Mal, Raja Man Singh, Faizi and Birbal. Akbar’s policy of liberalism and tolerance was continued by his successors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. However this policy was abandoned by Aurangzeb.
6. Aurangzeb’s short sighted policies and endless wars in different parts of the country (especially in South India) resulted in the disintegration of the Mughal empire.
7. The rise of the Marathas in the south, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali, unrest amongst the nobility in the court and the rise of the Sikhs in north- western India destroyed whatever was left of the Mughal power. Economically India was still the biggest exporter in the world and had great wealth, but it was left far behind in the process of modernisation.

RISE OF ISLAM AND SUFISM

The Muslims first came to India in the eighth century AD mainly as traders. They were fascinated by the socio-cultural scenario in this country and decided to make India their home. The traders who came to India from Central and West Asia carried back with them traces of Indian science and culture. As a result they became cultural ambassadors of India by disseminating this knowledge to the Islamic world and from there to Europe. The immigrant Muslims also entered into matrimonial alliances with the local people and learned to live together in harmony. There was mutual exchange of ideas and customs. The Hindus and Muslims influenced each other equally in dress, speech, manners, customs and intellectual pursuits. The Muslims also brought with them their religion, Islam which had a deep impact on Indian society and culture.

Let us find out more about Prophet Mohammad and Islam.

1. Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the seventh century AD in Arabia. He was born in AD 571 in the Quraysh tribe of Arabia.
2. He migrated to Madina from Mecca in AD 622 and this marked the beginning of the Hijira Era.
3. According-to the Muslim belief, Quran is the message of Allah revealed to Mohammad through his archangel Gabriel. It has been translated into several languages.
4. The five fundamental principles of Islam are:
   1. Tauhid (belief in Allah)
   2. Namaz (prayers, five times a day)
   3. Roza (fasting in the month of Ramzan)
   4. Zakat (giving of alms)
   5. Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca)

1. Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are preserved in what is called the Hadith or Hadees.
2. After his death the Caliphate was established. There were four pious Caliphs.
3. Islam talked of equality, brotherhood, and the existence of one God. Its arrival particularly made a profound impact on the traditional pattern of Indian society.
4. The rise of both the Bhakti and the Sufi movements contributed immensely in this regard. Both the Bhakti and the Sufi movements believed that all humans are equal, God is supreme and devotion to God is the only way to achieve salvation.

THE SUFI MOVEMENT

Background-Rise of Islam

Islam was founded by Prophet Muhammad. Islam saw the rise of many religious and spiritual movements within it.

1. These movements were centered mainly around the interpretation of the Quran. There were two major sects that arose within Islam – the Sunnis and Shias. Our country has both the sects, but in many other countries like Iran, Iraq, Pakistan etc. you will find followers of only one of them.
2. Among the Sunnis, there are four principal schools of Islamic Law, These are based upon the Quran and Hadis (traditions of the Prophet’s saying and doings).
3. Of these the Hanafi school of the eighth century was adopted by the eastern Turks, who later came to India.
4. The greatest challenge to orthodox Sunnism came from the rationalist philosophy or Mutazilas, who professed strict monotheism. According to them, God is just and has nothing to do with man’s evil actions. Men are endowed with free will and are responsible for their own actions.
5. The Mutazilas were opposed by the Ashari School. Founded by Abul Hasan Ashari (873-935 AD), the Ashari school evolved its own rationalist argument in defence of the orthodox doctrine (kalam). This school believes that God knows, sees and speaks. The Quran is eternal and uncreated. The greatest exponent of this school was Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111 AD), who is credited with having reconciled orthodoxy with mysticism. He was a great theologian who in 1095 began to lead a life of a Sufi. He is deeply respected by both orthodox elements and Sufis. Al-Ghazali attacked all non-orthodox Sunni schools. He said that positive knowledge cannot be gained by reason but by revelation.
6. Sufis owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the Ulemas did.
7. The influence of the ideas of Ghazali was greater because of the new educational system set up by the state, It provided for setting up of seminaries of higher learning (called madrasas) where scholars were familiarised with Ashari ideas. They were taught how to run the government in accordance with orthodox Sunni ideas. These scholars were known as ulema. Ulema played an important role in the politics of medieval India.

The Sufis

1. Contrary to the ulema were the Sufis. The Sufis were mystics. Sufism is a common term used for Islamic mysticism. Many began to lead a retired ascetic life, having nothing to do with the state.
2. The Sufis were very liberal in their religious outlook. They believed in the essential unity of all religions. They preached spirituality through music and doctrines that professed union with God.
3. The Sufi philosophy also differed from the ulema. The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas.
4. They were against formal worship, rigidity and fanaticism in religion.
5. The Sufis turned to meditation in order to achieve religious satisfaction.
6. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufis too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’ and service of humanity.
7. They preached the unity of God and self-surrender unto Him in almost the same way as the votaries of the Nïrgun Bhakti movement did. Music attracts everybody, irrespective of language. Slowly such music attracted the Hindus who started visiting the dargahs in large number. The Hindu impact on Sufism also became visible in the form of siddhas and yogic postures.
8. They were pious men who were shocked at the degeneration in political and religious life. They opposed the vulgar display of wealth in public life and the readiness of the ulema to serve “ungodly” rulers.
9. Sufism originated in Iran and found a congenial atmosphere in India under the Turkish rule. Their sense of piety, tolerance, sympathy, concept of equality and friendly attitude attracted many Hindus, mostly from lower classes, to Islam. Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin Auliya, Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar were the pioneer sufïs who are still loved, respected and honoured in India.
10. The sufis were also influenced by the Christian and Buddhist monks regarding the establishment of their khanqahs and dargahs.
11. Khanqah the institutions (abode of Sufis) set up by the Sufis in northern India took Islam deeper into the countryside. Mazars (tombs) and Takias (resting places of Muslim saints) also became the centres for the propagation of Islamic ideas. These were patronized both by the aristocracy and the common people. The Sufis emphasized respect for all human beings.
12. The Sufis were organised into religious orders or silsilahs. These silsilahs were named after their founders such as Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadi. and Naqshbandis.
13. According to Abul Fazl, the author of the Ain-i-Akbari, there were as many as fourteen silsilahs in India during the sixteenth century. Each order had its own khanqah, which served as a shelter for the Sufi saints and for destitutes, and later developed as a centre of learning.
14. Ajmer, Nagaur and Ajodhan or Pak Pattan (now in Pakistan) developed as important centres of Sufism.
15. These also started the tradition of piri-muridi, (teacher and the disciple).
16. In order to attain a state of mystical ecstasy, the sufis listened to poetry and music (sama) which were originally in Persian, but later switched to Hindawi or Hindustani.
17. In course of time, the Sufis were divided into different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah having its own pir (guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh. The pir and his disciples lived in a khanqah (hospice). A pir nominated a successor or wali from his disciples to carry on his work. The Sufis organised samas (a recital of holy songs) to arouse mystical ecstasy. Basra in Iraq became the centre of Sufi activities. It must be noted that the Sufi saints were not setting up a new religion, but were preparing a more liberal movement within the framework of Islam. They owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the ulema did.

Sufism in India

1. The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
2. One of the early Sufis of eminence, who settled in India, was Al-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly known as Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Treasure).
3. In the beginning, the main centres of the Sufis were Multan and Punjab.
4. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Sufis had spread to Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan.
5. It may be mentioned that Sufism had already taken on a definite form before coming to India. Its fundamental and moral principles, teachings and orders, system of fasting, prayers and practice of living in khanqahs had already been fixed. The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan on their own free will. Their emphasis upon a pure life, devotional love and service to humanity made them popular and earned them a place of honour in Indian society.
6. Abul Fazl while writing in the Ain-i-Akbari speaks of fourteen silsilahs of the Sufis. These silsilahs were divided into two types: Ba-shara and Be-shara.
   1. Ba-shara were those orders that followed the Islamic Law (Sharia) and its directives such as namaz and roza. Chief amongst these were the Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdawsi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi silsilahs.
   2. The be- shara silsilahs were not bound by the Sharia. The Qalandars belonged to this group.

The Chishti Silsilah

1. The Chishti order was founded in a village called Khwaja Chishti (near Herat).
2. In India, the Chishti silsilah was founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (born c. 1142) who came to India around 1192.
3. He made Ajmer the main centre for his teaching.
4. He believed that serving mankind was the best form of devotion and therefore he worked amongst the downtrodden.
5. He died in Ajmer in 1236.
6. During Mughal times, Ajmer became a leading pilgrim centre because the emperors regularly visited the Sheikh’s tomb. The extent of his popularity can be seen by the fact that even today, millions of Muslims and Hindus visit his dargah for fufilment of their wishes.
7. Among his disciples were Sheikh Hamiduddin of Nagaur and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. The former lived the life of a poor peasant, cultivated land and refused Iltutmish’s offer of a grant of villages. The khanqah of Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was also visited by people from all walks of life. Sultan Iltutmish dedicated the Qutub Minar to this Saint.
8. Sheikh Fariduddin of Ajodhan (Pattan in Pakistan) popularised the Chishti silsilah in modern Haryana and Punjab. He opened his door of love and generosity to all. Baba Farid, as he was called, was respected by both Hindus and Muslims. His verses, written in Punjabi, are quoted in the Adi Granth.
9. Baba Farid’s most famous disciple Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) was responsible for making Delhi an important centre of the Chishti silsilah. He came to Delhi in 1259 and during his sixty years in Delhi, he saw the reign of seven sultans. He preferred to shun the company of rulers and nobles and kept aloof from the state. For him renunciation meant distribution of food and clothes to the poor. Amongst his followers was the noted writer Amir Khusrau.
10. Another famous Chishti saint was Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, popularly known as Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Dilli (The Lamp of Delhi). Following his death in 1356 and the lack of a spiritual successor, the disciples of the Chishti silsilah moved out towards eastern and southern India.

The Suhrawardi Silsilah

1. This silsilah was founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
2. It was established in India by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262). He set up a leading khanqah in Multan, which was visited by rulers, high government officials and rich merchants.
3. Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya openly took Iltutmisht’s side in his struggle against Qabacha and received from him the title Shaikhul Islam (Leader of Islam).
4. It must be noted that unlike the Chishti saints, the Suhrawardis maintained close contacts with the state. They accepted gifts, jagirs and even government posts in the ecclersiastical department.
5. The Suhrawardi silsilah was firmly established in Punjab and Sind.
6. Besides these two silsilahs there were others such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah, Naqshbandi Silsilah.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SUFI MOVEMENT

1. The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society. Like the Bhakti saints who were engaged in breaking down the barriers within Hinduism, the Sufis too infused a new liberal outlook within Islam.
2. The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid the foundation for more liberal movements of the fifteenth century.
3. The Sufis believed in the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Unity of Being) which was promoted by Ibn-i-Arabi (l165-1240). He opined that all beings are essentially one. Different religïons were identical. This doctrine gained popularity in India.
4. There was also much exchange of ideas between the Sufis and Indian yogis. In fact the hatha-yoga treatise Amrita Kunda was translated into Arabic and Persian.
5. A notable contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtrodden sections of society. While the Sultan and ulema often remained aloof from the day to day problems of the people, the Sufi saints maintained close contact with the common people.
6. Nizamuddin Auliya was famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of religion or caste. It is said that he did not rest till he had heard every visitor at the khanqah.
7. According to the Sufis, the highest form of devotion to God was the service of mankind. They treated Hindus and Muslims alike. Amir Khusrau said “Though the Hindu is not like me in religion, he believes in the same things that I do”.
8. The Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood. It fact, The Islamic emphasis upon equality was respected far more by the Sufis than by the ulema.
9. The doctrines of the Sufis were attacked by the orthodoxy. The Sufis also denounced the ulema. They believed that the ulema had succumbed to world by temptations and were moving away from the original democratic and egalitarian principles of the Quran. This battle between the orthodox and liberal elements continued throughout the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Sufi saints tried to bring about social reforms too.
10. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufi saints contributed greatly to the growth of a rich regional literature. Most of the Sufi saints were poets who chose to write in local languages. Baba Farid recommended the use of Punjabi for religious writings. Shaikh Hamiduddin, before him, wrote in Hindawi. His verses are the best examples of early Hindawi translation of Persian mystical poetry. Syed Gesu Daraz was the first writer of Deccani Hindi. He found Hindi more expressive than Persian to explain mysticism. A number of Sufi works were also written in Bengali.
11. The most notable writer of this period was Amir Khusrau (l 252-1325) the follower of Nizamuddin Auliya. Khusrau took pride in being an Indian and looked at the history and culture of Hindustan as a part of his own tradition. He wrote verses in Hindi (Hindawi) and employed the Persian metre in Hindi. He created a new style called sabaq-i-hindi. By the fifteenth century Hindi had begun to assume a definite shape and Bhakti saints such as Kabir used it extensively.

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

It was in the field of art and architecture that the rulers of this period took a keen interest. The composite cultural characteristic of the medieval period is amply witnessed in these fields. A new style of architecture known as the Indo- Islamic style was born out of this fusion. The distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture were the (a) dome; (b) lofty towers or minarets; (c) arch; and (d) the vault.

The Mughal rulers were great lovers of nature. They took pleasure in spending their time in building beautiful forts and gardens. The famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh are important elements of our cultural heritage. There were waterways and fountains criss-crossing these gardens and finally, there were gardens with stages or levels. The water, while cascading from one stage to another, was made to fall in small streamlets with lamps lit behind them, making the water shimmer and lend a special charm to the whole atmosphere. It could also be made to flow over a chiselled and sloping slab, so that the water flowing over it shimmered. The best example of this type of garden is the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore (now in Pakistan). The Lahore garden has three stages.

But a better example can be seen in India at Pinjore Garden situated on the Chandigarh-Kalka road where we have a seven-stage garden. This impressed the British so much that they created a three-stage garden in the Vice-Regal Lodge (now the Rashtrapati Bhawan) in New Delhi, It was on these very lines that the famous Vrindavan Garden in Mysore were built in the twentieth century.

The pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work on marble became very popular in the days of Shah Jahan and the finest examples of this type of work are available in the Red Fort in Delhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra.

Besides, the structures within the Fatehpur Sikri complex, the forts at Agra and Lahore and the Shahi mosques in Delhi and Lahore are an important part of our heritage. During this period mosques, tombs of kings and dargahs came to dominate the landscape.

Coinage

Another aspect of art, which is of great importance to us, is connected with Numismatics (the study of coins) which is a major source of information for any period in history. The coins of Muslim kings are valuable in history. Their designs, calligraphy and mint marks give us plenty of interesting information on this period. From the royal titles, the name and place of minting we can find out the extent of the monarch’s kingdom as well as his status.

Muhammad Tughlaq’s coins were minted at Delhi, Daulatabad and several other provincial capitals and had at least twenty-five different varieties. Some of the legends found on the coins are quite interesting. The warrior in the cause of God’ and ‘he who obeys the Sultan obeys the Compassionate’, are a few examples.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The Sufis were not the only popular religious teacher of the time. There were also the Bhakti saints. Their teachings were similar to those of the Sufis but they had been teaching for a longer time. They were popular among the artisans, craftsmen and traders in the towns. The people in the villages also flocked to listen to them.

The Sufi and Bhakti saints had many thoughts and practices in common.

1. Their essential belief was in the need to unite with God.
2. They laid stress on love or devotion as the basis of the relationship with God.
3. To achieve all this a Guru or a Pir was needed.

• The Bhakti saints attacked the rigidity in religion and the objects of worship.
• They stressed the need for tolerance among humans and religions.

THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT

1. The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the seventh and twelfth centuries.
2. It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu).
3. These saints looked upon religion not as a cold formal worship but as a loving bond based upon love between the worshipped and worshipper.
4. They wrote in local languages, Tamil and Telugu and were therefore able to reach out to many people. The Bhakti saints did their entire teaching in the local vernacular language to make it comprehensible even to simple minds.
5. In course of time, the ideas of the South moved up to the North but it was a very slow process. Sanskrit, which was still the vehicle of thought, was given a new form.
6. Thus we find that the Bhagavata Purana of ninth century was not written in the old Puranic form. Centered around Krishna’s childhood and youth, this work uses Krishna’s exploits to explain deep philosophy in simple terms. This work became a turning point in the history of the Vaishnavite movement which was an important component of the Bhakti movement.
7. A more effective method for spreading of the Bhakti ideology was the use of local languages. The Bhakti saints composed their verses in local languages. They also translated Sanskrit works to make them understandable to a wider audience. Thus we find Jnanadeva writing in Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in Hindi, Shankaradeva popularising Assamese, Chaitanya and Chandidas spreading their message in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani. In addition, devotional poetry was composed in Kashmiri, Telugu, Kannad, Oriya, Malayalam, Maithili and Gujarati.
8. The first important feature of bhakti movement was the concept of oneness of God and brotherhood of all human beings. It did not discriminate against anyone on the basis of caste or gender.
9. Its second important feature was surrender into God, who is all pervasive and capable of solving the problems of the devotees.
10. The third important feature of bhakti was an intense personal devotion to God with an emphasis on a good moral life. It was felt that chanting the name of God constantly purified the soul and prepared one for His grace. A true devotee does not want heaven or moksha. He only wants to chant the Lord’s name and be born again and again to sing His praise.
11. The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can be achieved by all. They made no distinction of caste, creed or religion before God.
12. The Bhakti saints belonged to various backgrounds but mainly from the lower castes. Many were artisans by origin or belonged to the less prosperous class of cultivators.
13. Ramananda, whose disciples included Hindus and Muslims, came from a conservative brahman family. His disciple, Kabir, was a weaver. Guru Nanak was a village accountant’s son. Namdev was a tailor. The saints stressed equality, disregarded the caste system and attacked institutionalised religion.
14. The saints did not confine themselves to purely religious ideas. They advocated social reforms too. They opposed sati and female infanticide. Women were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai and Lalla (of Kashmir) composed verses that are popular even today.
15. Amongst the non-sectarian Bhakti saints, the most outstanding contribution was made by Kabir and Guru Nanak. Their ideas were drawn from both Hindu and Islamic traditions and were aimed at bridging the gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims.
16. In northern India, it developed into two streams, nirguna bhakti and saguna bhakti.
17. The nirguna bhaktas were devotees of a formless God even while calling him variously as Rama, Govinda, Hari or Raghunatha. The most conspicuous among them were Kabir and Nanak.
18. The saguna bhaktas were devotees of Rama, the son of Dasharatha, or Krishna, the son of Devaki and Vasudeva. Some of the best examples of Saguna bhaktas were Tulsidas, who idolised Rama in his famous Ramcharita Manas, and Surdas, who sang praises of Krishna in his famous Sursagar. Raskhan, a Muslim poet, who was a devotee of Lord Krishna, also belonged to this tradition.
19. In addition, came the guru or spiritual teacher, whose function was to provide people with hope, strength and inner courage. He was supposed to be a person who had marched ahead on the path of bhakti and had probably realised God and hence was capable of leading others into Him. This brought in a system of pahul.
20. Pahul was the sanctified water offered by a master to the pupil or shishya as a token of his being accepted as a trainee on his march to godliness.

The Sikhs performed “washing of the swords” ceremony, called khande ka pahul, evolving as the pir-muridi custom (the saint-soldier concept).

Have you been able to notice here some features of the Bhakti tradition, which were similar to the practices and ideas of the Sufis?

The spirit of Bhakti pervaded the whole of India and found vivid and beautiful expression in the religious poetry of the medieval saints and mystics, no matter what religious faith they believed in. Their literary compositions, rendered into geet, qawali, etc united the people, as nothing else could have done. It also stimulated the development of regional languages.

South Indian Bhakti

Differences between South Indian and North Indian Bhakti

1. North Indian bhakti comes from the Sanskrit root bhaja which means to share or participate. So North Indian bhakt participates in the divine. South Indian saints expressed their devotion towards god through ambu or love. The use of Tamil version of term bhakti came up very late.
2. The South Indian bhakti saints themselves are worshipped unlike North.
3. In North, Krishna was a popular item of bhakti whereas in South, it was Vishnu and Shiva primarily which were worshipped. Avatars were secondary.
4. South Indian bhakti focused on temples where proceedings were controlled by brahmans. North Indian bhakti advocated a more direct approach in religion.
5. South Indian bhakti was against Buddhism and Jainism whereas North Indian bhakti had no such elements.
   

Differences between Alwars and Naynars

1. The Naynars (shaivite) expressed the relationship between God and bhakt as that of master and slave while
2. the Alwars (Vaishnavites) expressed it as that of bridegroom and bride, lover-beloved, friend, mother, father as well.

Vaishnavism and Shaivism were but a religious form given to movements that would have surfaced in any case

1. Some believe that they were an expression of local sentiment questioning the attempts at homogenization made by Vedic brahmanism with its insistence on orthodox practices and social inequality. Buddhism and Jainism were less popular in the devotional movement because they advocated mortification of body through ascetic practices.

2. The appearance of the movement was not unexpected because it had a long gestation period as can be seen from the Sangam poems of love. The deity was now visualized as the lover. The emphasis was not on the object of worship but on the relationship involved in the worship.

Nirgun Bhakti vs Sagun Bhakti

1. Nirgun saints (Kabir, Nanak, Dadu Dayal, Namdev) were not limited to any particular sect or religion in their following and in their ideas (thus were able to win followers among both hindus and muslims). But sagun saints (Tulsidas, Mira, Chaitanya, Vallabhacharya) were tied to their particular sect.
2. Nirgun saints believed in worshipping god in a form without any attributes. Sagun saints believed in worshipping him in the attributes form.
3. Nirgun saints derived their philosophy from the upanishads. Despite advocating the attribute less form of God like Shankara where they departed from him was their emphasis on keeping their message simple and preaching in simple language and asking people to do something which they could actually do. Sagun saints derived it from epics, puranas, doctrine of avatar.
4. Nirgun saints emphasized more on personal devotion instead of external forms of worship and rituals. Sagun saints believed in idol worship, avatarism, devotional songs, worshipping in temples etc. and invariably paved the way for more rituals.
5. Nirgun saints were more progressive, humanist, rational and egalitarian in their outlook then the sagun saints. Nirgun saints openly opposed discrimination in any form – be it on the basis of caste or religion. They had no second thoughts about it. Sagun saints, on the other hand, accepted the prevailing discriminations to a certain extent. For instance even though Tulsidas was only trying to advocate complete devotion to God, in doing so he accepted even the social inequalities during Rama’s era. Mira was very soft on some traditional issues.
6. Nirgun bhakti can be divided into 2 sects – one which emphasized knowledge and the other which emphasized love.
7. Sagun bhakti can be divided into 2 sects as well – one devoted to Rama and other devoted to Krishna.
   

Social Composition of the Followers of Bhakti Movement

1. Even though today people from all sections praise them in their time their following was limited to certain sections only. The elite sections of the society kept themselves aloof from their movement.
2. The satnami sect in Braj land emerged from peasants and petty traders and reflects Kabir tradition. It also included artisans who were treated as lower / out castes.
3. Nanak’s followers were mainly peasants. It must be remembered that peasants constituted the bulk of the society and were one of the most exploited lot.
4. Al Berouni tells us that the small artisans were treated as untouchables and were forced by the society to follow their traditional occupations only. They had no scope of social mobility. They saw a way out in bhakti to improve their social position and joined it as well.
5. Al Berouni tells us that Jats were mainly shepherds and had a very low status in the society. They flocked to the nirgun saints so that they could be freed from their traditional occupation and practice farming as we find they became farmers by Akbar’s time. This was one major reason for the emergence of Sikhism in Punjab.
   

Ramanuja

Ramanuja was from the South and he taught in the langauge of the common people. His disciple was Ramananda who took his Guru’s message to the northern parts of India.

Ramananda

Ramananda was born at Allahabad and educated at Varanasi. He preached at both these places.

1. He wanted to rid the Hindu religion of its evil customs and practices.
2. He wanted people to know that all men were equal in the eyes of God and there was nobody high born or low born.
3. His followers belonged to diferent walks of like. For example, Kabir was a weaver, Sadhana was a butcher, Ravidasa was a cobbler and Sena was a barber.

Kabir

Kabir was Ramananda’s favourite disciple.

1. Kabir (1440-1518) is said to have been the son of a brahman widow, who abandoned him. He was brought up in the house of a Muslim weaver.
2. Kabir believed that the way to God was through personally experienced bhakti or devotion.
3. He believed that the Creator is One.
4. His God was called by many names – Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda, etc.
5. He criticised the existing social order and called for Hindu-Muslim unity.
6. Kabir, the son of a Muslim weaver, strongly denounced idol worship, taking part in formal worship such as Namaz, pilgrimages or bathing in rivers.
7. He wanted to preach a religion which was acceptable to all and that would unite all religions.
8. He emphasised the unity of God. He called Him by several names such as Rama, Gobinda, Hari and Allah. You must have read his ‘Dohas’ or ‘couplets’ in Hindi.
9. No wonder then that the Muslims claim him as Sufi, the Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta and the Sikhs incorporate his songs in the Adi Granth.
10. The external aspects of religion were meaningless for Kabir. His beliefs and ideas were reflected in the dohas (Sakhi) composed by him. One of his dohas conveyed that if by worshipping a stone (idol) one could attain God, then he was willing to worship a mountain. It was better to worship a stone flour-grinder because that could at least fill stomachs.
11. Kabir emphasised simplicity in religion and said that bhakti was the easiest way to attain God.
12. He refused to accept any prevalent religious belief without prior reasoning. For him, a man could not achieve success without hard work. He advocated performance of action rather than renunciation of duty. Kabir’s belief in the unity of God led both Hindus and Muslims to become his disciples.
13. Kabir’s ideas were not restricted to religion. He attempted to change the narrow thinking of society. His poetry was forceful and direct. It was easily understood and much of it has passed into our everyday language.

Guru Nanak

Another great exponent of the Nankana school was Guru Nanak (1469-1539).

1. Guru Nanak was born of a Khatri family in the village of Talwandi (Nakana Sahib) which is now called Nankana. Though Guru Nanak was trained in accountancy, he preferred the company of saints and sufis. Some time later, he had a mystic vision.
2. He left home for the company of saints and pirs. He composed hymns and sang them to the accompaniment of the ‘rabab’, which is a musical instrument. His hymns are popular even today.
3. From an early age, he showed leanings towards a spiritual life. He was helpful to the poor and needy. His disciples called themselves Sikhs (derived from Sanskrit sisya, disciple or Pali sikkha, instruction).
4. Guru Nanak’s personality combined in itself simplicity and peacefulness.
5. Guru Nanak’s objective was to remove the existing corruption and degrading practices in society. He showed a new path for the establishment of an egalitarian social order. Like Kabir, Guru Nanak was as much a social reformer as he was a religious teacher.
6. He called for an improvement in the status of women. He said that women who give birth to kings should not be spoken ill of. His vani (words) along with those of other Sikh Gurus have been brought together in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs.
7. He emphasised love and devotion for the one and only God.
8. He strongly denounced idol worship, pilgrimages, sacrifices and rituals as a way to achieving God.
9. He demanded purity of character and conduct as the first condition of approaching God.
10. He believed that anyone could achieve a spiritual life while doing his duties as a householder. 

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu

Chaitanya was a saint from Bengal. He was a devotee of Lord Krishna. Though he was a Brahman he condemned the caste system and emphasised on the equality of all. He wanted the people to know that true worship lay in love and devotion. He used to go into a trance singing devotional songs in praise of Lord Krishna.

Mirabai

Mirabai was another Bhakti Saint who worshipped, composed and sang songs in praise of Lord Krishna. Like Chaitanya, she too would go into a trance in her love for the God.

Namadeva

Namadeva was a tailor. He wrote in Marathi. His poetry spoke of intense love and devotion to God.

Popularity of the Bhakti Movement

How did the Bhakti movement became so popular with the people?

1. An important reason was that they challenged the caste system and the superiority of the Brahmanas.
2. They welcomed the ideas of equality and brotherhood which the Sufi saints also preached.
3. People were no longer satisfied with the old religion. They wanted a religion which could satisfy both their rationality as well as emotions.
4. All the Bhakti saints emphasised oneness of God.
5. They said that the path to God lay in devotion and Bhakti to Him and not in any rituals.
6. They condemned rituals and sacrifies.

Impact of Bhakti Movement – How successful were they?

1. We must keep in mind none of them ever was trying to start a revolution or create a new religion. They were merely preaching their ideas of humanism, egalitarianism and devotion. They probably never thought they were actors in something big.
2. Their success is reflected in communal harmony prevalent in India for centuries.
3. Contrary to the contemporary thought many saints combined sainthood with normal domestic life(Kabir, Namdev, Ravidas made shoes) and highlighted the importance of work. They showed the way how common people can practice bhakti.
4. Most of them were from the lower classes.They were able to create a serious challenge.
   

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENTS

1. They awakened a new sense of confidence and attempted to redefine social and religious values.
2. Saints like Kabir and Nanak stressed upon the reordering of society along egalitarian lines. Their call to social equality attracted many a downtrodden.
3. Although Kabir and Nanak had no intention of founding new religions but following their deaths, their supporters grouped together as Kabir panthis and Sikhs respectively.
4. The importance of the Bhakti and Sufi saints lies in the new atmosphere created by them, which continued to affect the social, religious and political life of India even in later centuries. Akbar’s liberal ideas were a product of this atmosphere in which he was born and brought up. The preaching of Guru Nanak were passed down from generation to generation. This resulted in the growth of a separate religious group, with its separate language and script Gurmukhi and religious book, Guru Granth Sahib. Under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikhs grew into a formidable political force in the politics of North India.
5. The interaction between the Bhakti and Sufi saints had an impact upon Indian society. The Sufi theory of Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being) was remarkably similar to that in the Hindu Upanishads. Many Sufi poet-saints preferred to use Hindi terms rather than Persian verses to explain concepts. Thus we find Sufi poets such as Malik Muhamniad Jaisi composing works in Hindi.
6. The use of terms such as Krishna, Radha, Gopi, Jamuna, Ganga etc. became so common in such literature that an eminent Sufi, Mir Abdul Wahid wrote a treatise Haqaiq-i-Hïndi to explain their Islamic equivalents. In later years this interaction continued as Akbar and Jahangir followed a liberal religious policy.
7. The popular verses and songs of the Bhakti saints also served as forerunners of a musical renaissance. New musical compositions were written for the purpose of group singing at kirtans. Even today Mira’s bhajans and Tulsidas’s chaupais are recited at prayer meetings.
8. The major religious movements were brought about by the mystics. They contributed to the religious ideas and beliefs.
9. Bhakti saints like Vallabhacharya, Ramanuja, Nimbaraka brought about new philosophical thinking which had its origin in Shankaracharya’s advaita (non-dualism) philosophy.

Why did Bhakti become so popular in the later half of 1st millennium AD?

1. It may have been a reaction to the Sanskrit culture introduced into the elite circles and a reluctance to be subordinated to this culture. Bhakti’s role was now similar to what Buddhism and Jainism had performed in 1st millennium BC in N India. Bhakti rejected the claim of closeness of brahmans to God and also the exclusion of the lower castes.
2. Political aspects of bhakti have been suggested as well. The king is seen as the focus of loyalty and demands devotion from his subjects like the deity receives it from his worshippers. This may have encouraged the rulers to patronize the devotional sects.
3. Bhakti may also have been related to the upward mobility of some peasant and artisan groups and also with the freedom provided by the cities.
4. Bhakti saints also used common language while the brahmanical religion used the alien Sanskrit. They were also open to women.
   

Contribution of Buddhism to Bhakti

The concept of a compassionate deity came from Buddhism specifically from its notion of bodhisattvas.

Impact of South Indian Bhakti

Social

1. On Women: It advocated that the path of bhakti was open for all including women. But the leadership of the movement remained in male hands only. At the general level, it was only towards the time of Ramanuja that women devotees were allowed a greater role.
2. On Untouchability: Thought here were a couple saints belonging to the untouchable castes which shows that path of bhakti was open to all, but their stories also show that entry of these saints into temples was not an easy one. But bhakti did try to create a community across the castes.

Sufism

Philosophy
1. It rejected the quest for jannat in Muslim world and instead advocated the absolute union with God.

Spread in India

Chisti Silsila

1. Sheikh Muin-ud-din Chisti was the first saint and he came with Ghori. He settled in Ajmer. His disciple was Khwaja Bakhtiyar whose disciple was Baba Farid. Baba Farid’s disciple was Nizam-ud-din Auliya. Sufism became very popular under these.

2. Baba Farid’s teachings find their way in Guru Granth Sahib. He was a humanist.He never criticized any religion.

Suharawardi Silsila

1. It was founded in Sind and Multan became its chief center. Baha-ud-din Zakariya was its main saint. Later on it spread to Gujarat, Bengal, Hyderabad, Bijapur as well.

Sufism in S India

1. Sufism spread there even before the Muslim rulers went there. Chisti saint Sheikh Burhan was its founder in Deccan who was the disciple of Nizam-ud-din Auliya and he stayed in Daulatabad. Haji Rumi established his center @ Bijapur. After Sheikh Gensu Daraj, Chisti silsila became very popular in Deccan. A large madarssa was established in Gulberg due to his efforts and it became an important center of sufism in Deccan. They were open to all sects and even held discussion with the hindu saints.

2. It was their impact only that Bahmani kings followed liberal policies.

Outlook Towards State

1. Initial Chisti saints received great honor in the society and from the state. But they retained their independence from it. Baba Farid is said to be the son in law of Balban and yet he maintained his family in extreme poverty. Nizam-ud-din Auliya never went to any sultan’s court. Not only did they maintain their distance from the state on the ideological front but also denied any economic assistance from them – even for their operations.

2. However, by the time of Sheikh Gensu Daraj sufi philosophy had changed and it was no longer considered necessary that one should live in poverty for the pursuit of mysticism and proximity to God. So they came close to the rulers and in S India, Chisti silsila began to accept state assistance to carry out its programme.

3. Suharawardi silsila, on the other hand, maintained close relations with the state from the onset. They believed that by using state assistance they can help the poor. In fact just like extremist maulvis used to influence the policies of the state towards extremist Islam, they too could tilt state policy towards moderate and humanist form of Islam. They didn’t consider wealth as evil provided it was used in good deeds.

N Indian Bhakti

Origin of Bhakti Movement

Hypothesis #1, 2, 3 Turkish Influence

1. When Turks defeated Rajputs, they got dejected, couldn’t face realities of life and turned towards other world.

2. This was the effect of sufi saints.

3. This was the effect of the egalitarian character of Islam.

Hypothesis #4 Indigenous Origin

1. India had a long tradition of Bhakti. Harappan, vedic, bhagwatism / vaishnavism, naynar / alwars, testimony of Al-Berouni are all examples.

Factors and Forces Responsible for the Growth
1. Defeat of the Rajputs and break up of the brahman-rajput nexus.

2. Challenge of Islam and degeneration of Hindu society.

3. Breaking up of temples and need of a religious form where it could be practiced privately.

4. Indian thought and philosophy was confined in the boundaries of traditionalism. Earlier Buddha had challenged it but with time even Buddhism had become a mere shadow of its past and suffered from same weaknesses as the hindu religion. Shankara had tried to break the tradition by his philosophy of advaita but his message was beyond the comprehension of common people. Bhakti was simple.

5. There was high degree of hypocrisy and complications in the society. Even those who agreed with Shankara’s advaita at a philosophical level were practicing discrimination in real lives.

6. Inner vitality of Indian culture.It was assimilatory and evolving in character.

Kabir

1. Dignity of human labor: He was the first saint in nirgun bhakti who believed in the dignity of normal life and human labor despite being a saint. Thus he continued in his profession of weaving clothes till the end and didn’t give up on the world.

2. Reason: He applied reason to any practice and thought. He didn’t accept something simply because it was prescribed in the religion. Instead he criticized it with no hesitation at all if it failed to stand the test of reason.

3. Egalitarianism: He believed that Hindu society had fallen to a level where people accepted equality among all at the philosophical and moral level but practiced gross discriminations at the behavioral level. He thus rejected casteism and believed in equality of all.

4. Humanism: He believed in love and compassion for fellow humans.He thus rejected any extremist view in religion which ran contrary to it. He believed that mankind has the ability to lift itself and religion should be there for welfare of mankind.

5. Monotheism: He believed there is only one god and all religions preach the same god. Thus he had followers among both hindus and muslims.

6. Criticism of materialism: Much before Marx and Rousseau he had claimed that economic inequalities are the root of all other disabilities and exploitation. He accepted money but believed everyone should have resources according to his needs. One should work hard and only earn what he needs to live. Excessive wealth brings inequalities and exploitation.

7. Rejection of extremism: He rejected the extremists and narrow views of brahmins and maulvis. He instead preached communal harmony.

Nanak

1. Monotheism.
   2. Anti idol worship and complete devotion to God..
2. 3. Communal harmony and rejection of extremism.

4. Egalitarianism.

5. Humanism.

6. Assimilatory:He even accepted the best from Islam.

7. His preaching had the seeds of a well organized religion. On the other hand Kabir merely criticized the ills in the society at large and wanted to remove them.

Other Bhakti Saints

1. Vallabhacharya: He preachedinwesternUPandpraisedKrishna.
2. Chaitanya: He preached in Bengal and praised Krishna. He encouraged ecstasy music like Sufis.

Maharashtra Bhakti Saints

1. Ramnath, Tukaram, Namdev are the famous saints. They preached that everyone has come from the same God and hence everyone is equal. Namdev criticized casteism.

2. They created a cultural movement in Maharashtra, led to the development of a common language, led to a feeling of unity and paved the way for eventual emergence of Marathas.